Actionable knowledge has been qualitatively and intensively studied in the social sciences. Its marriage with data mining is only a recent story. On the one hand, data mining has been booming for a while and has attracted an increasing variety of increasing applications. On the other, it is a reality that the so-called knowledge discovered from data by following the classic frameworks often can...

That citizens engage in retrospective voting is widely established in the literature. But to what extent is retrospection affected by the expectations that leaders set in advance? We develop a theoretical framework of how expectation setting affects voters’ retrospective evaluations of incumbent performance. To test the theory, we conduct a series of between-subjects experiments in which we ind...