BACKGROUND Over the last decade, image-guided production of three-dimensional (3D) haptic biomodels, or rapid prototyping (RP), has transformed the way surgeons conduct preoperative planning. In contrast to earlier RP techniques such as stereolithography, 3D printing has introduced fast, affordable office-based manufacturing. We introduce the concept of 4D printing for the first time by introdu...

Shape-morphing systems can be found in many areas, including smart textiles, autonomous robotics, biomedical devices, drug delivery and tissue engineering. The natural analogues of such systems are exemplified by nastic plant motions, where a variety of organs such as tendrils, bracts, leaves and flowers respond to environmental stimuli (such as humidity, light or touch) by varying internal tur...

3D bioprinting has been invented for more than a decade. A disruptive progress is still lacking for the field to significantly move forward. Recently, the invention of 4D printing technology may point a way and hence the birth of 4D bioprinting. However, 4D bioprinting is not well defined and appear to have a few distinct early forms. In this article, a personal perspective on the early forms o...

One of the main objectives of 3D printing in health science is to mimic biological functions. To reach this goal, a 4D printing might be added to 3D-printed objects which will be characterized by their abilities to evolve over time and under external stimulus by modifying their shape, properties or composition. Such abilities are the promise of great opportunities for biosensing and biomimetic ...

Background Aortic diseases are often associated with changes in vessel geometry and blood flow. Currently available tools provide limited regional information that do not fully capture these complex alterations. Studies have shown that 4D flow MRI can be used for detailed in-vivo assessment of vascular hemodynamics with 3D visualization and quantification of aortic flow. Advances in rapid proto...