The physics that is traditionally formulated in one–time-physics (1T-physics) can also be formulated in two-time-physics (2T-physics). The physical phenomena in 1T or 2T physics are not different, but the spacetime formalism used to describe them is. The 2T description involves two extra dimensions (one time and one space), is more symmetric, and makes manifest many hidden features of 1T-physic...

I present a brief review of what is known about double-barred galaxies, where a small (“inner”) bar is nested inside a larger (“outer”) bar; the review is focused primarily on their demographics and photometric properties. Roughly 20% of S0–Sb galaxies are doublebarred; they may be rarer in later Hubble types. Inner bars are typically ∼500 pc in radius (∼12% the size of outer bars), but sizes r...

A substantial fraction of barred galaxies host additional nuclear bars which tumble with pattern speeds exceeding those of the large-scale (primary) stellar bars. We have investigated the mechanism of formation and dynamical decoupling in such nested bars which include gaseous (secondary) nuclear bars within the full size galactic disks, hosting a double inner Lindblad resonance. Becoming incre...

The central kpc of barred galaxies exhibits a wealth of morphological information on different components with clear dynamical consequences. These include nuclear rings, spirals, bars, and more. We argue that this morphology is driven by large-scale stellar bars and analyze its consequences for gas dynamics and the distribution of star-forming regions. Specifically, we focus on gas flows in nes...

Error bars commonly appear in figures in publications, but experimental biologists are often unsure how they should be used and interpreted. In this article we illustrate some basic features of error bars and explain how they can help communicate data and assist correct interpretation. Error bars may show confidence intervals, standard errors, standard deviations, or other quantities. Different...