During the production of concrete, cement, water, aggregate, and chemical and mineral admixtures will be used, and a large amount of carbon dioxide will be emitted. Conversely, during the decades of service life of reinforced concrete structures, carbon dioxide in the environment can ingress into concrete and chemically react with carbonatable constitutes of hardened concrete, such as calcium h...

Estuarine shorelines have been degraded since humans arrived in the coastal zone. In recent history, a major cause of habitat degradation has been the armoring of shorelines with vertical walls to protect property from erosive wave energy; however, a lack of practical alternatives that maintain or enhance ecological function has limited the options of waterfront residents and coastal zone manag...