INTRODUCTION.1 Many Austronesian (An) languages—particularly those of Taiwan, the Philippines, and northern portions of Borneo and Sulawesi—have elaborate systems of verb morphology. To choose just one of many possible examples, Thao, spoken by fewer than 2fteen persons around Sun-Moon Lake in central Taiwan, has over 200 pre2xes, in2xes, suf2xes, circum2xes, reduplication patterns, and the lik...

Formative constructs must influence two or more distinct outcome variables for meaningful tests of the formative conceptualization. Because the construct mediates the effects of its indicators, the indicators must have effects on the outcomes that are proportional to their effects on the formative construct itself. This constraint has important implications for developing and testing formative ...

Formative assessment was first used by Scriven (1967), but studies focused on formative assessment in ESL and EFL classes started in 2000. Formative assessment is integrated in learning and teaching, so a great part of classroom assessment is formative. However, classroom assessment has been not defined clearly, as most of the texts about this type of assessment define it in terms of its format...

Black and Wiliam (1998a, 1998b) demonstrate that formative assessment is one of the most effective strategies for promoting student learning. Since the publication of their reviews, formative assessment has gained increasing international prominence in both policy and practice. However, despite this early innovation, the theory and practice of formative assessment are currently at a crossroads....

background: assessment forms the backbone of undergraduate medical training especially in clinical contexts and clerkships, which are typically situated in environments lacking educational structure. this study aims to evaluate the viewpoints of medical interns in internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics and obstetrics and gynecology wards about feedback and formative assessment. methods: 100 med...