Task-based language teaching, which requires learners to transact tasks resembling their real life language needs, demands language learners to perform planning at different stages of their learning. Since various types of tasks can be used in task-based instruction, the present study examined the effect of task types and various participatory structures during pre-task planning on the quality ...

To understand the functioning and organizational complexity of insect societies, a combination of different approaches is needed. One such approach, which we adopt in this study, is to consider tasks in insect societies not based upon their function, as is traditional, but upon their structure. Four types of task in insect societies have been proposed: individual, group, team and partitioned ta...

There are several formalizations for hierarchical planning. Many of them allow to specify preconditions and effects for compound tasks. They can be used, e.g., to assist during the modeling process by ensuring that the decomposition methods’ plans “implement” the compound tasks’ intended meaning. This is done based on so-called legality criteria that relate these preconditions and effects to th...