A global analysis of factors predicting conservationists' values

Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on Journal blog. Conservation is a mission-oriented discipline in which values play central role (Noss, 2007). Understanding of conservationists and other stakeholders therefore an important objective conservation research (Bruskotter et al., 2019). Studies roles lie within broader field environmental (e.g. Dietz 2005; Satterfield & Kalof, 2005). Research has ranged from philosophical, most notably question whether biological diversity possesses intrinsic value Cahen, 1988; Callicott, 1984), to sociological, anthropological psychological, explore range that exist at levels both individuals populations Kempton 1995; Schultz The word ‘value’ different, although related, meanings English language, different studies have adopted definitions. In philosophy, say something usually means it some way good (James, 2016). sense, refers goodness or worth natural entity. ‘Value’ as also meaning used economics when said ecosystem monetary value). Note paper we are interested exploring conservationists' values; is, their conceptions what valuable—we do not make any normative claims about think such things fact value. But ‘values’ can refer someone's moral principles, guiding notions right wrong (note shift rightness). Although distinct, these two share common ground (Kempton 1995): judgement entity (first definition) will likely shape how they humans should behave towards (second definition). paper, consider senses word. Where necessary, specify referring principles. We provide clarifications where context makes unambiguous wish (as first sentence following paragraph). Many researchers sought understand by investigating relevant groups people, resource users citizens particular jurisdiction. Much work been based typology orientations proposed Schwartz colleagues, categorises human–nature relations into those driven either mastery harmony (Schwartz, 2006). Researchers adapted identify prevalence distribution relation wildlife United States (Teel Manfredo, 2010) beyond 2007), societal modernisation influences (Dietsch 2016), demonstrate preferences services fishing communities underlain variety human (Hicks 2015), argue may with changes socioecological conditions, broad cannot easily be changed external agents advance goals (Manfredo 2017, 2021). Fewer considered who directly involved movement, practitioners. It demonstrated early career scientists hold wide (Sandbrook 2010), significant proportion favour treating animals concern welfare lives 2019; Lute 2018; Vucetich 2021), views around world diverse but divided clearly distinct positions 2019), interpret scientific captive-bred lions shaped underlying (Hiller MacMillan, At theoretical level, essays discussed science socio-political (Noss 2012), well risks conflating (Wilhere 2012); debate dates back least decades 1996). Questions (and, more broadly, environmentalism) had practical implications policy practice since nineteenth-century debates proper nature (Clayton, More recently, ‘relational values’ (Chan 2018) multiple framework Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform Biodiversity Ecosystem Services (Díaz Pascual 2017). Values isolated psychological phenomena. People's various factors, including prevailing ecological social institutions local (Hechter, 1993). turn, processes phenomena, individuals' behaviours (Schultz vein, handful identified several factors associated conservationists, gender, educational specialism, age, level seniority nationality There differences self-define scientists, combination (Montana 2020). Conservationists' relating linked identification hunter animal rights 2019) (Lute 2018). Yet while shown influencing wider population, childhood experiences (Freestone O'Toole, 2016; Pinder 2020), family background religion (Hitlin Piliavin, 2004), there less relationships between characteristics (Oh Values, choices, (Singh 2011), date little shapes movement. Greater understanding predicts would contribute key initiatives. First, importance sector attracted considerable attention recent years, achieve better outcomes desirable goal itself (Chaudhury Colla, 2021; Gould Knowing possible assess extent skews representation ethnic academic background) lead over- under-representation certain values. This knowledge could inform composition teams, panels, organisations so enhance therein representative perspectives. Second, relative proportions shared divergent explain conflict conservation, example over protected areas (Gale Ednie, greater help design fairer, effective resolution strategies (Redpath 2013; Young An improved curricula, illustrating kinds content activities expose students values, helping predict effect curricular students' Finally, establishing correlate pave further empirical causal correlations; them. aims improve demographic life history. Using data largest global survey examining statistical associations respondents' sectoral experience, education, location adults children. analyse free-text responses discuss our findings management disagreement conservation. study uses quantitative qualitative Future Survey (futureconservation.org; see Sandbrook al. (2019) full description survey; appended Supporting Information). final sample consisted 9264 149 countries (the same skewed English-speaking, highly educated Internet-connected respondents. 38 Likert items derived literature so-called new (described detail These statements categorised types according kind belief express (Appendix S1). Some them axiological, expressing beliefs definition Introduction). ought-statements, principles (or whole) behave. ought-statements rest ethical ‘Conservation must benefit poor people because imperative’); constitute value-claims second sense given Introduction. Other rather than definition); example, statement actions primarily informed evidence science’ implies generally best source information actions. As articulated Introduction, understandings related. For instance, ought-statement ‘Conserving nature's sake conservation’ constitutes principle (intrinsic upshot all empirical: can, least, proven disproven through observation. axiological empirical. item ‘Giving voice affected improves outcomes’ read axiologically: ‘improves’ denotes evaluation state affairs empirically: if were agreement outcome giving results outcomes. metaphysical: reality. three dimensions variation Survey. people-centred (relating participants, potential beneficiaries; composed seven items), science-led ecocentrism species ecosystems own sakes; capitalism corporations market-based approaches conservation; five items). All entirely questions Dimensions 1 2 overwhelmingly ought-statements: capture ought relate (dimension 1), science, 2). Dimension 3 mostly formed axiological/empirical statements: captures desirability partnering capitalist entities processes. Respondent scores reflect each response variables analysis. Respondents' predictor answers conceived authors, guided expert judgement. 13 follows: sectors respondents professional experience (which corresponds figures text below), seniority, country (aggregated continents), worked (location below; aggregated modification (context work), using market practitioners researchers, adult influences. To structure discussion highlight thematic similarities, (entitled experience), geographical effects) personal adulthood (broader relationships). steps analysis (and reported 2019, provides starting point work) summarised Appendix S2. examined respondent's Bayesian hierarchical linear models (Gelman 2013). estimated multidimensional theory model fitted function fscores mirt package (Chalmers, 2012). uncertainty estimated, variable single random draw posterior distributions expected posteriori respondent scores. draws, often referred ‘plausible psychometrics literature, suitable secondary regression unbiased estimate true (Marsman repeated procedure 10 times dimension, time drawing variable, averaged resulting parameter estimates combining 1000 Markov Chain Monte Carlo samples drawn distributions. Each structure, captured variables. was coded categorical avoid prior assumptions functional form predictors response. achieved grouping classes (<29, 30–39, 40–49, 50+). Following Gelman (2005, pp. 8–10), modelled batches coefficients corresponding coming centred zero standard deviation data. define mutually exclusive individual level—that only allowed choose option—(here: practitioner researcher, work, continent nationality) varying intercepts. Variables defined groupings exclusive—that select categories applied them—(here: influences, membership structures Cafri 2015). non-mutually cases, deviations priors Student-t hyperprior degrees freedom, reflecting smaller substantially larger plausible. Stan (Stan Development Team, 2021) via brms (Bürkner, r version 4.0.4 (R Core Four chains run 2000 iterations, discarding burn-in. Convergence assessed visually trace-plots reference Gelman–Rubin statistic, <1.01 taken indicate satisfactorily converged (Vehtari R2 calculated variance dimension explained calculating finite-population (Gelman, 2005), excluding representing non-specific ‘Not applicable’, reported’ ‘Other/Prefer say’). When reporting analyses, present mean alongside 80% 95% credible intervals (CIs) measures being statistically its CI does overlap zero. interaction effects covariates, conducted supplementary did explanatory power models, report below, original consistent across nationalities (please S3 details). end survey, asked write, open-text format, anything else felt influenced conservationists. A total 1589 provided (1454 after spurious eliminated, e.g. feedback instead answering question). Qualitative codes reading responses. process then entire dataset. presented section relationships. Please S4 details analysed. project approved Ethics Committee University Leeds (Ref: LTSEE-054). Before taking consent stating stored securely no published except anonymous (see protocols followed during collection, storage analysis, please (2019). ranking varied dimensions, specialism highest average power, top (Figure 1). terms nationality, order. Significant observed subgroups 2; S5 pairwise comparisons). While Figure indicates direction sizes subgroup sample, recommend readers consult check significance direct comparisons variable. assigned letter facilitate S5. patterns (2019), dataset somewhat include study. Results here Respondents tended favourable regarding experience. thought themselves opposed practitioners), capitalism, trend mirrored education 2d,f; S5). Moreover, (such payment schemes) scored significantly positively ecocentrism, 2e; opposite (less capitalism) indicated private sector, compared carried out continents, 2h; having done African Central South American expressed continents; European and/or North aligned African, Asian countries; were, respectively, subgroups. perception 2i) 2i; Those unmodified very modified largely ecosystems, ecocentrism. categories. found strong 2j,k; outdoor indoor differ one another capitalism. contrast, Similarly, activities, interestingly, though, considering childhood. families perceived influence happened adulthood. asking shaping 3; S4). Travel frequently cited gave subjective experiential accounts instance: Extended periods living survive subsistence farming Pacific especially Melanesia—this profoundly revelatory me. I believe humanising live close [would change minds many] Another moving first-person account seeking refuge intense emotional affliction. encounter eased hardship instigated commitment protect landscapes. Strong emotions theme experiencing loss nature. wrote: ‘My interest stemmed passion seeing lost locally globally terrifying rate’. 73 ‘love’ (Table A4). commonly words denoting ‘passion’ (33), ‘empathy’ (12) ‘fascination’ (9). Less still remarkable ‘wonder’ (7), ‘awe’ (2) ‘enchantment’ (1). 188 (12.9% making response) emotion-laden language Our novel insights closely overall predictor, suggests enduring linkages training working alternatively, already hold. Both explanations act synergistically. Further needed confirm Regardless causality, current discussions interdisciplinarity (Pooley 2014), shows collaborative disciplines bring just methodological ways knowing world—it bear. seen strength interdisciplinarity, plurality broadens viewpoints strengthens applicability challenges (Robinson, 2011). Alternatively, become barrier collaboration incompatible incommensurable, feasibility calls inclusive (Tallis Lubchenco, 2014). Despite remain dominated (Gardner, suggest disciplinary perspectives included curricula broadened, exposed enable critically knowledge, suggestion supported 72 claimed people's worldviews 3). add existing divisions pragmatic stance, case need economic structures, contrast freer imagine alternatives. refl