Efficient biomass cooking in Africa for climate change mitigation and development

•Woodfuels are Africa's largest energy source and contributor to climate change•The mitigation potential of improved cookstoves (ICSs) is substantial•Population growth urbanization will strongly influence this potential•Aggressive promotion ICS solutions requires greater focus on affordability Three-quarters Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)'s demand comes from woodfuels used for cooking. Extraction these fuels contributes forest degradation change. This paper estimates cooking-related emissions in the inexpensive, efficiency biomass through 2050, highlighting important role population urbanization. Major uncertainties projections relate (1) poorly understood aerosol particles global warming (2) dynamics adoption alternative region. The calculations nonetheless show urgent need scaling-up that have been shown meet local users' needs. Carbon finance other price instruments critical ensure solutions, capture benefits external households. Well-adapted also reduce poverty burdens largely fall women. Nearly three billion people continue use their daily policy discourse increasingly emphasizes clean fuels, notably gas electricity, but expensive, supply chains typically interrupted, especially rural areas. As an alternative, shows fuel-efficient stoves could contribute potentials today exceed total CO2-equivalent a medium-sized European country. Abatement costs low at $2 $10 per ton CO2 equivalent. Furthermore, we highlight where greatest demonstrate may double by 2050. We argue rapid dissemination should be based two crucial steps. First, field-tested region adapted satisfy cooking Second, proven adopted users heavily subsidized scale accelerate uptake. Poverty alleviation change major challenges require immediate action. Trade-offs exist, however, when green approaches slow down economic development.1Dercon S. Is good poor?.The World Bank Research Observer. 2014; 29: 163-185Crossref Google Scholar Yet, several measures yield dividend both populations climate. (ICSs), example, can climate-forcing same time.2Anenberg S.C. Balakrishnan K. Jetter J. Masera O. Mehta Moss Ramanathan V. Cleaner achieve health, climate, cobenefits.Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013; 47: 3944Crossref PubMed Scopus (127) Scholar, 3Shindell D. Kuylenstierna J.C. Vignati E. van Dingenen R. Amann M. Klimont Z. Anenberg Muller N. Janssens-Maenhout G. Raes F. Simultaneously mitigating near-term improving human health food security.Science. 2012; 335: 183-189Crossref (811) 4Lacey F.G. Henze D.K. Lee C.J. Donkelaar A. Martin R.V. Transient ambient impacts due national solid fuel cookstove emissions.Proc. Natl. Acad. U S 2017; 114: 1269-1274Crossref (72) 5Bailis Drigo Ghilardi carbon footprint traditional woodfuels.Nat. Clim. Change. 2015; 5: 266-272Crossref (226) 6Bond T.C. Doherty S.J. Fahey D.W. Forster P.M. Berntsen T. DeAngelo B.J. Flanner M.G. Ghan Kärcher B. Koch Bounding black system: scientific assessment.J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118: 5380-5552Crossref (3468) Even today, 3 people, 900 million (SSA), cook with inefficient charcoal firewood stoves, constitutes around 60% SSA's primary demand.7International Energy Agency (IEA)Global Alliance Clean Cookstoves (GACC)United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)Energising (EnDev)World BankTracking SDG 7: Progress Report 2019.2019Google Improved reflected Sustainable Goal 7 (“Ensuring access affordable, reliable, sustainable modern energy”), clean-fuel solutions—mostly electricity liquefied petroleum (LPG).8Smith K.R. Changing paradigms cooking.EcoHealth. 12: 196-199Crossref (22) Scholar,9World Health Organization (WHO), International (IEA), Global (GACC), United (UNDP), Energising (EnDev), (2018). Achieving universal technologies services. Accelerating Policy Brief 2.Google rationale even best available not eliminate harms cooking.10Mortimer Ndamala C.B. Naunje A.W. Malava Katundu C. Weston W. Havens Pope Bruce N.G. Nyirenda A cleaner burning biomass-fuelled intervention prevent pneumonia children under 5 years old Malawi (the Cooking Pneumonia Study): cluster randomised controlled trial.Lancet. 389: 167-175Abstract Full Text PDF (179) Yet establishing reliable LPG across South massive infrastructure investments take considerable time, optimistic scenarios.11International (IEA)SDG7: data projections. Access cooking.https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/access-to-clean-cooking#outlook-for-clean-cookingDate: 2021Google makes contributions: first analyze low-cost ICSs and, second, urgency responding continuing increases woodfuel SSA. Regarding contribution, ICSs, henceforth “simple ICSs,” technology, generally below $20 stove, which bridge between status quo future. Various studies simple deliver significant savings12Adrianzén M.A. consumption: quasi-experimental evidence Northern Peruvian Andes.Ecol. Econ. 89: 135-143Crossref (28) 13Bensch Peters intensive margin technology adoption—experimental Senegal.J. 42: 44-63Crossref (70) 14Bensch Grimm Why do households forego high returns adoption—evidence Burkina Faso.J. Behav. Organ. 116: 187-205Crossref (62) 15Berkouwer S.B. Dean J.T. Credit Attention Adoption Profitable Efficient Technologies Kenya.2019Google 16Beyene A.D. Bluffstone Gebreegzhiaber Martinsson P. Mekonnen Vieider Do Biomass Reduce Fuelwood Consumption Emissions? Evidence Rural Ethiopia Using Randomized Treatment Trial Electronic Monitoring. Working Paper 7324, 2015Crossref 17Usmani Steele Jeuland Can incentives enhance household technology? pilot study Cambodia.Environ. Lett. 035009Crossref 18Rosa Majorin Boisson Barstow Johnson Kirby Ngabo Thomas Clasen Assessing impact water filters drinking quality air pollution: trial Rwanda.PLoS One. 9: e91011Crossref (74) 19Jeuland Pattanayak Samaddar Shah Vora Rajasthan.Energy Development. 2020; : 149-159Crossref (8) particulate matter emissions—although probably enough benefits.20Baumgartner Zhang Y. Schauer J.J. Huang Wang Ezzati Highway proximity as risk factor higher blood pressure China.Proc. 111: 13229-13234Crossref (138) 21Grieshop A.P. Marshall J.D. Kandlikar replacement options.Energy Pol. 2011; 39: 7530-7542Crossref (167) 22de la Sota Viana Kane Youm I. O.R. Lumbreras Quantification carbonaceous Senegal.Aerosol Air Qual. 2019; 19: 80-91Crossref Importantly, appropriate most regions already further testing development better serve habits remains essential.23Jeuland Bhojvaid Kar Lewis Patange Rehman Soo Preferences stoves: villages north India.Energy 52: 287-298Crossref (51) For second provide scenario analyses how woodfuel-related SSA might evolve until remain assumptions about dissemination. Moreover, less assumptions, lead substantially increasing demand, forests leading much emissions. More specifically, examine would result Africa. savings field-based Benin, Faso, Kenya, Senegal, consider well-adapted technologies.13Bensch Scholar,14Bensch Scholar,24Bensch Alleviating deforestation pressures? Impacts stove consumption urban Senegal.Land 676-698Crossref (38) 25Garland Jagoe Wasirwa Nguyen Roth Patel Derby Mitchell Pennise programs Uganda, 27: 168-173Crossref (11) 26Ochieng C.A. Tonne Vardoulakis comparison cost, wood three-stone Kenya.Biomass Bioenergy. 58: 258-266Crossref (40) Unlike lab-based measurements,27Johnson Edwards Frenk In-field greenhouse Mexican households.Atmos. Environ. 2008; 1206-1222Crossref (147) Scholar,28Lee C.M. Chandler Lazarus F.X. projects: issues accounting.Challenges Sustainability. 1: 53-71Crossref accounts behavioral adjustments, such non-usage, stacking, rebound effects.29Jeuland S.K. economics pollution.Annu. Rev. Resource 81-108Crossref (49) 30Masera Saatkamp B.D. Kammen D.M. From linear switching multiple strategies: critique ladder model.World Dev. 2000; 28: 2083-2103Crossref (501) 31Frondel Vance Identifying rebound: German panel.Energy 154-163Crossref (90) Our analysis pays particular attention channels leads climate-relevant releases (BC) organic (OC), whose joint contribution highly uncertain.6Bond it degrades or woodlands—but only extent extraction unsustainable. sustainability harvesting varies therefore apply country-specific all our analyses.5Bailis importance emissions, advances, more harmful than extraction. To assess cooking, base case assumes provided entire woodfuel-using assume usage intensity similar observed day-to-day conditions Senegal.13Bensch In Figure 1 (upper panel) different pollutant groupings: only, gaseous set, includes plus gases (methane, monoxide, non-methane volatile compounds [NMVOCs]), additionally main components, BC OC. start with, pollutant-specific (CO2-e) measured using 100-year (GWP), conventional method account differences ability pollutants absorb over lifetime atmosphere.32Intergovernmental Panel Climate Chang (IPCC)Houghton Ding Griggs D.J. Noguer Van der Linden P.J. Dai X. Maskell Change 2001: Scientific Basis. Contribution Group I Third Assessment Intergovernmental Cambridge University Press, 46-47Google 33Somanathan Biogas: change.Environ. 62: 265-277Crossref (14) 34Smith Haigler Co-benefits protection systems: scoping methods.Annu. Public Health. 11-25Crossref (126) experimental procedures section provides details potentials, well associated Tables 1, 2, 3, 4. annual amount 65 megatons CO2-e 118 188 set. range wide set because uncertain effect Note unclear forcing differs discussed limitations section.Table 1Country-level fraction non-renewable biomassWoodfuel FCb,c ktonfNRBcWoodfuel ktonfNRBcFirewoodCharcoalFirewoodCharcoalAngola4,1791,1220.35Liberia3,1952250.26Benin2,8502350.21Madagascar7,7741,0670.30Botswana403710.53Malawi3,1734780.37Burkina Faso5,4275700.48Mali2,6601290.29Burundi2,4261720.57Mauritania4171800.35Cameroon7,9612140.42Mozambique9,5439380.40Central African Rep.1,1871860.25Namibia27200.46Chad5,263430.24Niger3,46900.24Congo, Dem. Rep.49,7797040.20Nigeria23,4153,8440.35Congo, Rep.1,2891690.09Rwanda2,6334350.59Cote D'Ivoire7,4029630.16Senegal3,1205610.36Equatorial Guinea23490.52Sierra Leone1,9503730.22Eritrea1,2871280.68Somalia3,8548730.52Ethiopia55,5041,1890.61South Africa18,9541,2860.24Gabon564200.00Sudan (former)11,0061,8120.41Gambia450550.41Swaziland472410.07Ghana9,8601,5340.29Tanzania, United26,9621,5580.21Guinea7,0623400.27Togo1,8275560.44Guinea-Bissau1,295630.28Uganda19,9109060.61Kenya11,9543,0270.64Zambia7,8789950.34Lesotho896950.52Zimbabwe10,52550.35All values were retrieved Bailis et al.5Bailis Scholar; fNRB correspond average expected plantation productivity variant scenarios each, described That does differentiate Sudan Sudan. Open table new tab Table 2Basic survey informationCountry (location)Survey dateSample sizeIdentification strategySample representativenessImproved cookstovesMain (counterfactual)Measured rate (SRb)(%)Benin (urban)2013120kitchen performance tests, cross-sectionalthree cities Cotonou, Porto Novo, (peri-urban) Ouidahmetal stovesimple metal stoves29.5 (charcoal stove)Burkina Faso (urban)20111,473cross-sectional propensity-score-weighted OLStwo Ouagadougou Bobo-Dioulassoimproved suitable usesimple stoves28.1 (wood stove)Kenya (rural)2009/201037kitchen before-aftervillages sub-district Western Kenyarocket mud stovethree-stone fires29.2 stove)Senegal (rural)2009/2010253randomized trial12 semi-arid Bassin Arachidier central Senegalceramic jikothree-stone fires30.6 (urban)2009624cross-sectional Dakar Kaolackceramic jikosimple stoves25.1 stove)For information five studies, see Garland al.25Garland Bensch al.14Bensch Ochieng al.26Ochieng Peters13Bensch Peters24Bensch Senegal urban, respectively. 3Pollutant subsets analyzed paperPollutant setEmission factors (EF)Global (GWP)Full setFull setCO2 onlyWood cookstoveCharcoal makingIPCCSCAR (SDR = 1%)SCAR 6%)CO2carbon dioxideXXX1,560 (1,480–1,640)2,533 (2,327–2,739)1,802 (1,009–2,595)111CH4methaneXX5.0 (3.2–6.8)11 (7.4–15)45 (33–56)344383COcarbon monoxideXX78 (48–108)313 (220–406)223 (154–292)1.81.93.9NMVOCsnon-methane compoundsXX10 (4.0–16)16 (10–22)93 (70–115)3.43.43.4OCorganic carbonX3.1 (1.2–5.0)1.7 (1.0–2.3)4.0 (3.6–4.4)?69?158?457BCblack carbonX1.06 (0.55–1.85)0.38 (0.20–0.75)0.40 (0.33–0.46)900 (100–1,700)1,1453314 4Additional inputs abatement cost calculationCountry (location)Stove typeAverage marketsPrice alternativeLife expectanciesAnnual stovesPPtLCPaUS $US $yearsUS $/yearBenin (urban)charcoal stove5220.2Burkina (urban)wood stove4220.2Kenya (rural)wood stove9033.8Senegal stove4023.8Senegal stove11330.2The Pattanayak96Jeuland Benefits cookstoves: assessing implications variability impacts.PLoS e30338Crossref (130) who Shahpar98Mehta Shahpar interventions indoor pollution use: cost-effectiveness analysis.Energy 2004; 8: 53-59Crossref (76) Thakuri.99Thakuri M.B. Revisiting Need Stoves: Estimating Health, Time Benefits. Asian Network Environmental Economics, 2009Google They low, mid, areas All figures original referenced 2 GIZ database energypedia.info.100GIZCharcoal Jambar stove. Senegal.https://energypedia.info/wiki/File:GIZ_HERA_2011_Jambar_Charbon_Senegal.pdfDate: 2011Google Scholar,101GIZFirewood Senegal.https://energypedia.info/wiki/File:GIZ_HERA_2011_Jambar_Bois_Senegal.pdfDate: basis comparison, industrialized settings (Figure lower panel). avoided alone comparable Belgium, Australia's 2030 commitments, country's Nationally Determined (NDC) targets out Paris Agreement. If considered, US state Florida UK's NDC December 2020. locations include non-gaseous pollutants; come transport sector.35von Schneidemesser Mar K.A. Saar Black Europe—targeting forcer.IASS 2/2017. Simple $5 $20. estimates, accounting technologies, depending specific type patterns. reference, High-Level Commission Prices indicates current policies put (GHG) ranges $40 $80 commitments forward Agreement.36Carbon Pricing Leadership Coalition (CPLC)Report Prices. Bank,