Gondwanan origin of the Dipterocarpaceae-Cistaceae-Bixaceae is supported by fossils, areocladograms, ecomorphological traits and tectonic-plate dynamics

There is disparity between the estimated time of origin ‘superclade’ Dipterocarpaceae sensu lato, that includes Sarcolaenaceae, Cistaceae, Pakaraimaea, Bixaceae, Cochlospermaceae and Sphaerosepalaceae, as determined by recent molecular phylogenies (100−85 million years ago, Ma) its strongly tropical, South American-African-Madagascan-SE Asian distribution indicates an older Gondwanan (>110 Ma). We used several paleobiogeographic approaches, including recently reported fossil records, to explore hypothesis sl has a Gondwanan/early-Cretaceous origin.We created for this group, assigned each genus/family tectonic plate on which it extant, subjected cladogram areogram analysis. also assessed ecological, mycotrophic morphological traits, global circulation patterns, these might affect group’s distribution.The initial analysis (omitting evidence) showed crown occurred concurrently American Madagascan plates. Including fossils from Africa India changed American-African origin. Collectively, origins represent NorthWest Gondwana with America, Madagascar remaining conjoined until ≥105–115 Ma, setting minimum age superclade some evidence may be much older. show immediate ancestors three daughter lineages [Dipterocarpaceae- Sarcolaenaceae (in Africa/Madagascar, ≥115 Ma), Cistaceae- Pakaraimaea (South America/Africa/Eurasia, ≥105 Bixaceae-Cochlospermum-Sphaerosepalaceae America/ Africa, Ma)] arose in Gondwana.The or basal species (both subfamilies) Bixaceae migrated America)/Africa we propose Dipterocarpoideae proceeded while still linked Madagascar. In addition, subsequent diversification Eurasian, Indian, SE (Sunda) North plates post-Gondwanan breakup.This long vicariant history supported fossil, patterns negligible propensity transoceanic dispersal explain clade’s wide intercontinental distribution.We conclude all areocladogram/plate-breakup/ ecomorphological/circulation features are consistent (>115 Dipterocarpaceae-Cistaceae-Bixaceae plus clades. Future analyses at level, exploring alternative dates both plate-tectonic dynamics, needed refine findings.