Rhetoric and frame analysis of ExxonMobil's climate change communications

•ExxonMobil's public climate change messaging mimics tobacco industry propaganda•Rhetoric of “risk” downplays the reality and seriousness change•Rhetoric consumer “demand” (versus fossil fuel supply) individualizes responsibility•Fossil Fuel Savior frame uses to justify fuels, blame customers A dominant narrative about is that “we are all blame.” Another society must inevitably rely on fuels for foreseeable future. How did these become conventional wisdom? We show one source arguments propaganda. ExxonMobil advertisements worked shift responsibility global warming away from onto consumers. They also said was a “risk,” rather than reality, renewable energy unreliable, offered meaningful leadership change. much this rhetoric similar used by industry. Our research suggests warning signs using subtle micro-politics language downplay its role in crisis continue undermine litigation, regulation, activism. This paper investigates how framing shape discourse present an algorithmic corpus comparison machine-learning topic model 180 communications, including peer-reviewed publications, internal company documents, advertorials The New York Times. investigate inductive analysis. find has publicly overemphasized some terms topics while avoiding others. Most notably, they have construct “Fossil Savior” (FFS) change, normalizes lock-in, responsibility. These patterns mimic industry's documented strategy shifting corporations—which knowingly sold deadly product denying harms—and historical parallel foreshadows use demand-as-blame oppose In previous work, we shown Exxon, Mobil, Corp misled anthropogenic (AGW) contributing science through academic research, promoting doubt it other propaganda.1Supran G. Oreskes N. Assessing ExxonMobil’s communications (1977–2014).Environ. Res. Lett. 2017; 12: 084019Crossref Scopus (114) Google Scholar, 2Supran Addendum “Assessing 2020; 15: 119401Crossref 3Supran Reply comment ‘Assessing (1977-2014).Environ. 118002Crossref (0) Scholar (We refer Exxon Corporation as Mobil Oil Corp, generically three ExxonMobil.) observed that, starting mid-2000s, ExxonMobil's statements explicit implications (for example, “there does not appear be consensus among scientists effect climate”4ExxonMobil Global Climate Change - Better Path Forward.https://perma.cc/PJ4Q-WG32Date: 2000Google Scholar) gave way implicit acknowledgments couched ambiguous (such discussion lower-carbon “addressing risks posed rising greenhouse gas emissions,”5ExxonMobil Fuels Future (Advertorial). Times, 2008Google without mention AGW). invites how, beyond outright disinformation, may employed misleading narratives AGW. Here, take up question. “Framing” term art refers issue portrayed understood.6Gamson W.A. Modigliani A. Media opinion nuclear power: constructionist approach.Am. J. Sociol. 1989; 95: 1-37Crossref 7Nisbet M.C. Framing debates over poverty.in: Kuypers J.A. D’Angelo P. Doing News Analysis: Empirical Theoretical Perspectives. Taylor & Francis Group, 2020: 43-82Google 8Bateson theory play fantasy.Psychiatr. Rep. Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 1955; 2: 39-51PubMed 9Goffman E. Frame An Essay Organization Experience. Harvard University Press, 1974Google Frames meaning selecting “some aspects perceived reality” making them “more salient communicating text, such promote particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation.”10Entman R.M. Framing: toward clarification fractured paradigm.J. Commun. 1993; 43: 51-58Crossref (Here throughout, strictly “emphasis frames” “equivalency frames.”)11Cacciatore M.A. Scheufele D.A. Iyengar S. end know it...and future media effects.Mass Soc. 2016; 19: 7-23Crossref Analyzing which frames absent helps reveal actors tried policy setting agendas legitimating certain participants responses, discouraging or precluding others.12Hawkins B. Holden C. alcohol debate: regulation UK beverage market.Crit. Policy Stud. 2013; 7: 53-71Crossref (55) 13Friedman L.C. Cheyne Givelber D. Gottlieb Daynard R.A. Tobacco personal relations litigation: Disguising freedom choice.Am. Public Health. 2015; 105: 250Crossref PubMed (26) 14Hilgartner Bosk C.L. rise fall social problems: arenas model.Am. 1988; 94: 53-78Crossref 15Wynne Strange weather, again: political art.Theory, Cult. 2010; 27: 289-305Crossref responsibility, can determine whether calls upon individuals, industry, government action.16Iyengar citizens think national issues: matter responsibility.Am. Pol. Sci. 33: 878-900Crossref One primary AGW been scientific uncertainty.17Schlichting I. Strategic actors: meta-analysis.Environ. 493-511Crossref (36) Researchers detail over-emphasis uncertainty deny delay action.1Supran Scholar,2Supran Scholar,17Schlichting 18Farrell Network structure influence counter-movement.Nat. Clim. Chang. 6: 370-374Crossref (69) 19Boussalis Coan T.G. Text-mining signals doubt.Glob. Environ. 36: 89-100Crossref (83) 20Dunlap R.E. McCright A.M. Organized denial.in: Dryzek J.S. Norgaard R.B. Schlosberg Oxford Handbook Society. 2011: 144-160Google 21Oreskes Conway E.M. Merchants Doubt: Handful Scientists Obscured Truth Issues Smoke Warming. Bloomsbury 2010Google 22Gelbspan R. Heat Is on. Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1997Google 23Union Concerned Smoke, Mirrors Hot Air Uses Big Tobacco’s Tactics Manufacture Uncertainty Science.https://perma.cc/64RJ-8SBZDate: 2007Google 24Michaels Doubt Their Product. 25SkepticalScience.comClimate Myths Sorted Taxonomy.https://perma.cc/7LAF-MHEXGoogle Subtler forms framing, dominate today's discourse, only just beginning receive attention.7Nisbet Scholar,26Cahill Imagining Alternatives Emerald City: Discourse Transnational Fossil Corporations. Victoria, 2017Google 27Schneider Schwarze Bsumek P.K. Peeples Under Pressure Coal Industry Rhetoric Neoliberalism. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016Google 28Lamb W.F. Mattioli Levi Roberts J.T. Minx J.C. Müller-hansen F. Capstick Creutzig Culhane T. Steinberger J.K. Discourses delay.Glob. Sustain. 3: 1-5Crossref (9) 29Coan Boussalis Cook Nanko M.O. Computer-assisted detection classification misinformation Working Paper.https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/crxfmDate: 2021Google interests spent billions dollars affairs, yet their perpetuating underexplored.30Climate Investigations CenterTrade Associations Relations Industry.https://perma.cc/PN3M-P4FUDate: 2019Google Scholar,31Brulle R.J. Aronczyk M. Carmichael Corporate promotion change: analysis key variables affecting advertising spending major oil corporations, 1986 – 2015.Clim. Change. 159: 87-101Crossref (3) paper, analyze constructed selectively emphasizing compares between different paid, editorial-style advertisements—known advertorials—published Op-Ed page Times (NYT). identify latter. well-defined, longitudinal corpora conducive rigorous case study offers first computational assessment By bringing bear mixed-methods linguistics analysis, our results add (1) analyses affairs practices,32Brown Waltzer H. M.B. Daring Be heard: organized op-ed times, 1985-1998.Polit. 2001; 18: 23-50Crossref (20) 33Brown Every Thursday: times.Public Relat. Rev. 2005; 31: 197-208Crossref (12) 34St. John III, “creative confrontation” Herbert Schmertz: sense corporate persona.Public 2014; 40: 772-779Crossref 35St. Conveying sense-making persona: “Observations” columns, 1975–1980.Public 692-699Crossref (6) 36Crable Vibbert S.L. Mobil’s epideictic advocacy: Prometheus-bound.Commun. Monogr. 1983; 50: 380-394Crossref (66) 37Murphree V. Aucoin media: corporation’s debate with 1973–1983.Am. 7-30Google 38Smith G.L. Heath R.L. Moral appeals Oil’s campaign.Public XVI. 1990; : 48-54Crossref (13) 39Heath Nelson Management: Policymaking Information SAGE, 1986Google 40Kerr Rights Speech: Legal Development Voice Business. LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC, 2005Google 41Cooper C.A. Nownes A.J. Money well spent? experimental investigation effects citizen opinion.Am. Polit. 2004; 32: 546-569Crossref 42Kerr Creating citizen: editorial-advocacy campaign times advance right practice speech, 1970–80.Am. 21: 39-62Google 43Anderson J.W. Quantitative Qualitative Analysis Advocacy Advertising Pennsylvania State University, 1984Google 44Grantham Vieira Jr., E.T. Exxonmobil’s 2002-2013 CEO letters.Appl. Educ. 2018; 17: 266-279Crossref (2) qualitative accounts company's communications,23Union Scholar,45Jerving Jennings K. Hirsh M.M. Rust What Knew Earth’s Melting Arctic. Los Angeles 2015https://perma.cc/NA86-5PWHGoogle 46Banerjee Song L. Hasemyer Cushman J.H. Exxon: road taken. InsideClimate News, 2015https://perma.cc/ACY4-8NW5Google 47Achakulwisut Scandella Supran Voss Ending Sponsorship American Geophysical Union Past Present Misinformation Violates AGU’s Organizational Support Scientific Integrity.https://perma.cc/PBN7-V59JDate: 48Coll Private Empire: Power. Penguin Books, 2012Google 49Rowlands I.H. Beauty beast? BP’s Exxon’s positions change.Environ. Plan. C Gov. Policy. 2000; 339-354Crossref (74) application (algorithmic) content wider countermovement.1Supran Scholar,27Schneider Scholar,29Coan Scholar,50Farrell funding ideological polarization change.Proc. Natl. Acad. U S 113: 92-97Crossref (166) 51Jaworska but no discourses reporting industry.Int. Bus. 55: 194-219Crossref (14) 52Plec Pettenger Greenwashing consumption: didactic solutions.Environ. 2012; 459-476Crossref (28) 53Vang Good Guys: Cultural Semiotic Study Print (1900-2000). Linköping 2014Crossref 54McCright Dunlap Challenging problem: conservative movement’s counter-claims.Soc. Probl. 47: 499-522Crossref (430) 55Nelson Carbon Tax Australia: Investigation Organisational Influence behind Agendas. Technology Sydney, 56Livesey S.M. wars: rhetorical analytic approaches discourse.J. 2002; 39: 117-148Crossref (112) 57Smerecnik K.R. Renegar V.R. Capitalistic agency: Helios power campaign.Environ. ISSN. 4: 152-171Crossref (18) “distant”—that is, quantitative, statistical, macroscopic—reading practical advantages.58Underwood genealogy distant reading.Digit. Humanit. Q. 11: 1-12Google First, complements manual methodologies previously applied interests, corroborates prior coding demonstrate systematic discrepancies private communications.1Supran Second, automated methods textual allow broad, sometimes subtle, would otherwise unattainable. Third, existing establish techniques help efficacy approaches, researchers will able large numbers documents lawsuits against companies anticipated generate. illustrating encouraged embodied fixated individual findings corroborate insights what Kent59Kent Individualized 'if protection becomes everyone’s being no-one’s?’.Cosmop. Civ. 2009; 1: 132-149Google called “under-theorised” understanding “of why contemporary interest focuses change.”26Cahill Scholar,51Jaworska so doing, work decrypt playbook framings, illuminating schema conveyed deployments “penetrated naturalized common unfortunate realities.”13Friedman Although deceive defended First Amendment grounds, history litigation shows framework held circumstances part pattern fraudulent activities. may, therefore, relevant ongoing alleging “deceptive marketing” “greenwashing,” policymakers ban require come tobacco-style labels.60State Minnesota v Petroleum Institute (62-CV-20-3837).https://perma.cc/5FWM-6ZWUDate: 2020Google 61District Columbia corporation (1:20-CV-01932).https://perma.cc/ENQ9-M9V9Date: 62Commonwealth Massachusetts (1984CV03333).https://perma.cc/6ZN2-JTMGDate: 63State Delaware BP America Inc (N20C-09-097).https://perma.cc/3AG9-5495Date: 64State Connecticut (3:20-cv-01555).https://perma.cc/S5LM-T2GBDate: 65Carrington “A Great Deception”: Giants Taken Task “Greenwash” Ads. Guardian, adds expanding scholarly journalistic literature—spanning emissions accounting extreme weather attribution;66Ekwurzel Boneham Dalton M.W. Heede Mera Allen M.R. Frumhoff P.C. atmospheric CO2, surface temperature, sea level traced carbon producers.Clim. 144: 579-590Crossref (86) Scholar,67Heede Tracing dioxide methane cement producers, 1854-2010.Clim. 122: 229-241Crossref supply-side analysis;68Piggot Erickson van Asselt Lazarus Swimming upstream: addressing supply under UNFCCC.Clim. 1189-1202Crossref (17) 69Green Denniss Cutting both arms scissors: economic restrictive policies.Clim. 150: 73-87Crossref (52) 70Stockholm Environment Institute, International Sustainable Development, Overseas Analytics, Centre Environmental Research, Programme, U.E.The Production Gap: Discrepancy Countries’ Planned Levels Consistent Limiting Warming 1.5°C 2°C.https://perma.cc/C6WU-LYPTDate: decarbonization theory;71Turnheim Geels F.W. Regime destabilisation flipside transitions: lessons British coal (1913-1997).Energy 35-49Crossref Scholar,72Princen Manno J.P. Martin P.L. Era. MIT 2015Crossref denial, lobbying, propaganda interests;73Monbiot big polluters’ masterstroke you me. 2019https://perma.cc/X4DP-YFLFGoogle 74Mann M.E. Lifestyle Changes Aren’t Enough Save Planet. Here’s Could. TIME, 2019https://perma.cc/JRS7-DVVEGoogle 75Grover Defense Eco-Hypocrisy. Noteworthy, 2019https://perma.cc/3N2Y-GWJWGoogle 76Heglar Lie We’re Told It’s Own Fault. Vox.com, 2018https://perma.cc/Y3AC-B97TGoogle 77Frumhoff responsibilities industrial 132: 157-171Crossref (77) 78Franta Early knowledge CO2 warming.Nat. 8: 1024-1025Crossref 79Atkin Introducing: Ad Anthology (HEATED Newsletter).https://perma.cc/8DR7-7P9CDate: 80Westervelt Drilled: True Crime Podcast Change.https://perma.cc/JD2B-553VDate: 2018Google 81Big Real Agenda Majors Have Spent $1bn since Paris Narrative Capture Lobbying (Influence Map).https://perma.cc/BG6R-RWT9Date: 82Brulle lobby: sectoral lobbying USA, 2000 2016.Clim. 149: 289-303Crossref (41) 83Grasso Oily politics: critical industry’s contribution change.Energy 2019; 106-115Crossref ethical philosophy;84Shue Responsible what? producer contributions transition.Clim. 591-596Crossref Scholar,85Grasso Towards broader ethics: confronting morally facts.Energy 62: 101383Crossref (4) litigation86Olszynski Mascher Doelle From smokes smokestacks: liability.Georg. 30: 1-45Google Scholar,87Muffett Feit Fumes Evidentiary Basis Holding Accountable Crisis. Center Law, 2017https://perma.cc/UT88-STQJGoogle Scholar—challenging zeitgeist individualized Finally, contributes literatures analysis;88Callaghan Forster P.M. topography research.Nat. 10: 118-123Crossref (29) 89Elgesem Steskal Diakopoulos Elgesem Structure Blogosphere: picture.Environ. 9: 169-188Crossref (49) 90O’Neill Williams H.T.P. Kurz Wiersma Boykoff Dominant legacy coverage IPCC Fifth Assessment Report.Nat. 5: 380-385Crossref (102) 91Metag Content assessing communication portrayals.in: Nisbet Ho Markowitz O’Neill Schäfer M.S. Thaker Encyclopedia Communication. 2016: 1-34Google management advocacy marketing;56Livesey Scholar,92Miller Gaither T.K. Marketplace U.S. industries: representation environmental discourse.Mass 585-603Crossref (5) 93Gaither B.M. Sinclair marketplace Influences response.J. Mass 169-191Google 94Aronczyk relations, management, transformation environmentalism, 1948 1992.Enterp. 836-863Crossref 95Robinson M.L. Marketing Brand Lessons World’s Largest Companies. Macmillan, 2014Google 96Cho C.H. Laine R.W. Rodrigue frontstage Backstage sustainability reporting: evidence Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Bill.J. Ethics. 152: 865-886Crossref (25) cross-pollination strategies l