Structural balance: a generalization of Heider's theory.

A persistent problem of psychology has been how to deal conceptually with patterns of interdependent properties. This problem has been central, of course, in the theoretical treatment by Gestalt psychologists of phenomenal or neural configurations or fields (12, 13, 15). It has also been of concern to social psychologists and sociologists who attempt to employ concepts referring to social systems (18). Heider (19), reflecting the general field-theoretical approach, has considered certain aspects of cognitive fields which contain perceived people and impersonal objects or events. His analysis focuses upon what he calls the P-O-X unit of a cognitive field, consisting of P (one person), 0 (another person), and X (an impersonal entity). Each relation among the parts of the unit is conceived as interdependent with each other relation. Thus, for example, if P has a relation of affection for 0 and if 0 is seen as responsible for X, then there will be a tendency for P to like or approve of X. If the nature of X is such that it would "normally" be evaluated as bad, the whole P-O-X unit is placed in a state of imbalance, and pressures