Commonsense Opioid-Risk Management in Chronic Non-Cancer Pain Personality Disorders and the Bipolar Spectrum Maximizing Safety with Methadone and Other Opioids Protecting Pain

C ranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) is now being used and studied as a treatment for centrally-mediated pain syndromes that have historically been refractory to intervention , such as fibromyalgia, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, and global reflex sympathetic dystrophy. The safety assured by the low level of current and positive effects seen on the electroen-cephalogram also make CES a potentially efficacious treatment for headaches and dental pain. This review of the available data on CES suggests that sufficient research findings are now available to establish the usefulness of CES in pain management as a stand-alone or add-on treatment. This paper presents supporting data for a sequence of different ways that CES has been evaluated in pain management. These include rigorous double-blind crossover studies, open clinical trials, physician surveys, patient self-report surveys, reductions in anesthetic requirements , and dental applications for a variety of challenging pain-related disorders.