Leverage Points for Addressing Digital Inequality: An Extended Theory of Planned Behavior Perspective

................................................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 4 1.1 DIGITAL INEQUALITY. WHY DO WE NEED TO STUDY IT? ....................................................................... 4 1.2 FROM ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY TO DIGITAL INEQUALITY ............................................................................................................................................. 11 1.3 LAGRANGE FREE INTERNET TV INITIATIVE ....................................................................................... 12 1.4 SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................................... 14 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 17 2.1 DIGITAL INEQUALITY ......................................................................................................................... 17 2.1.1 The Infrastructural Predecessor: the Telephone Divide............................................................ 17 2.1.2 Digital Inequality Defined ......................................................................................................... 19 2.1.3 The Theoretical Development of Digital Inequality................................................................... 21 2.2 ADOPTION OF INNOVATION ................................................................................................................ 33 2.2.1 Technology Acceptance Model .................................................................................................. 33 2.2.2 Theory of Reasoned Action ........................................................................................................ 34 2.2.3 Theory of Planned Behavior ...................................................................................................... 37 2.2.4 Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior................................................................................. 39 2.2.5 A Reference Model for the Digital Inequality ............................................................................ 40 2.3 DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION ................................................................................................................ 42 2.3.1 Theory of Diffusion of Innovation .............................................................................................. 43 2.3.1.1 The Innovation Decision Process ........................................................................................................ 43 2.3.1.2 The Characteristics of Innovation ....................................................................................................... 47 2.3.1.3 The Adopter Categories ...................................................................................................................... 48 2.3.2 Personal Exposure to Innovation: The Threshold Model of Diffusion and Mimetic Pressure .. 50 2.3.3 Diffusion of Innovation and the Theory of Planned Behavior ................................................... 54 2.4 TRUST................................................................................................................................................. 56 2.4.1 The Importance of Trust............................................................................................................. 56 2.4.2 The Conceptualization of Trust .................................................................................................. 57 2.4.3 Trust in Adoption and Use of ICT .............................................................................................. 58 2.4.4 Individuals’ Trust toward Institutions in Digital Inequality ...................................................... 59 2.5 CONCLUSION AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS.......................................................................................... 61 2.5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 61 2.5.2 Research Questions.................................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH MODEL, THEORY DEVELOPMENT, AND HYPOTHESES ............. 66 3.1 RESEARCH MODELS............................................................................................................................ 67 3.1.1 Modeling Behavioral Intention: Comparison 1 ......................................................................... 67 3.1.2 Modeling Behavior: Comparison 2............................................................................................ 69 3.2 UNDER-PRIVILEGED NON-ADOPTERS VS. UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS ......................................... 73 3.2.1 Decomposing TPB ..................................................................................................................... 76 3.2.2 Attitudinal Belief Structure ........................................................................................................ 77 3.2.2.1 Utilitarian Outcomes ........................................................................................................................... 78 3.2.2.2 Hedonic Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 79 3.2.2.3 Social Outcomes.................................................................................................................................. 80 3.2.3 Subjective Norm Belief Structure ............................................................................................... 81 3.2.4 Behavioral Control Belief Structure .......................................................................................... 84 3.2.4.1 Internal Control ................................................................................................................................... 85 3.2.4.2 External Control .................................................................................................................................. 89 3.2.4 Exposure to Innovation .............................................................................................................. 91 3.2.5 Trust in Government .................................................................................................................. 92 3.3 UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS VS. PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS .............................................................. 95 3.3.1 Attitudinal Belief Structure ........................................................................................................ 98 3.3.2 Subjective Norm Belief Structure ............................................................................................. 100 3.3.3 Behavioral Control Belief Structure ........................................................................................ 101 3.3.3.1 Internal Control ................................................................................................................................. 101 3.3.3.2 External Control ................................................................................................................................ 102 3.3.4 Exposure to Innovation ............................................................................................................ 103 3.3.5 Trust in Government ................................................................................................................ 104 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 105 4.1 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................................... 105 4.2 SITE SELECTION................................................................................................................................ 107 4.3 SURVEY PHASE ................................................................................................................................. 109 4.3.1 Instrument Development .......................................................................................................... 109 4.3.2 Sample...................................................................................................................................... 115 4.3.3 Data Collection........................................................................................................................ 115 4.3.4 Control Variables..................................................................................................................... 116 4.4 CASE STUDY PHASE.......................................................................................................................... 116 4.4.1 Archival Data........................................................................................................................... 116 4.4.2 Primary Data ........................................................................................................................... 117 CHAPTER 5: QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS & RESULTS ................................................... 119 5.1 SURVEY RESPONDENTS .................................................................................................................... 120 5.2 CLASSIFYING UNDER-PRIVILEGED AND PRIVILEGED ........................................................................ 124 5.3 COMPARISON 1: UNDER-PRIVILEGED NON-ADOPTERS VS. UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS ............. 128 5.3.1 Measurement Model................................................................................................................. 128 5.3.2 Structural Model ...................................................................................................................... 132 5.3.3 The Comparison of Behavioral Models ................................................................................... 135 5.3.4 Results and Discussion............................................................................................................. 136 5.3.5 Points of Leverage ................................................................................................................... 141 5.4 COMPARISON 2: UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS VS. PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS .................................. 143 5.4.1 Measurement Model................................................................................................................. 143 5.4.2 Structural Model ...................................................................................................................... 146 5.4.3 Multi-group Analysis for Differences Across Privileged and Under-Privileged Groups ........ 149 5.4.4 Discussion................................................................................................................................ 152 5.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................ 156 CHAPTER 6 COMPLEMENTARY CASE STUDY ............................................................................ 157 6.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................. 158 6.1.1 The Stage Model ...................................................................................................................... 158 6.1.2 Factors Affecting the Process .................................................................................................. 161 6.2 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................... 164 6.2.1 Scope of the Analysis................................................................................................................ 164 6.2.2 Data Analysis Approach .......................................................................................................... 165 6.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................... 166 6.3.1 The Under-privileged............................................................................................................... 166 6.3.1.1 The Awareness Stage ........................................................................................................................ 168 6.3.1.2 The Interest Stage.............................................................................................................................. 169 6.3.1.3 The Installation Stage........................................................................................................................ 173 6.3.1.4 The Use Stage ................................................................................................................................... 174 6.3.1.5 Usage, Impact, Upgrade to Internet PC, and Termination................................................................. 178 6.3.2 The Privileged.......................................................................................................................... 184 6.3.2.1 The Awareness Stage ........................................................................................................................ 186 6.3.2.2 The Interest Stage.............................................................................................................................. 186 6.3.2.3 The Installation Stage........................................................................................................................ 189 6.3.2.4 The Use Stage ................................................................................................................................... 189 6.3.2.5 Usage, Impact, Termination, and Upgrade to Internet PC................................................................. 191 6.4 COMPLEMENTARY ANALYSIS BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS....................... 193 6.4 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................ 197 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................. 198 7.1 SUMMARY OF RESULTS..................................................................................................................... 198 7.2 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH ............................................................................................. 200 7.3 CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCHERS ................................................................. 203 7.3.1 Digital Inequality ..................................................................................................................... 203 7.3.2 Adoption and Diffusion of Innovation...................................................................................... 208 7.4 CONTRIBUTIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTITIONERS ............................................................... 210 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................... 214 APPENDIX A: CASE STUDY INTERVIEW PROTOCOL................................................................ 234 ADOPTER VERSION................................................................................................................................. 234 NON-ADOPTER VERSION ........................................................................................................................ 236 APPENDIX B: ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – COMPARISON 1.................. 237 APPENDIX B1: SQUARED CORRELATIONS AND ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – (UNDERPRIVILEGED NON-ADOPTERS) ................................................................................................................ 237 APPENDIX B2: SQUARED CORRELATIONS AND ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – (UNDERPRIVILEGED ADOPTERS)......................................................................................................................... 238 APPENDIX B3: PAIRWISE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS – (UNDER-PRIVILEGED NON-ADOPTERS).............. 239 APPENDIX B4: PAIRWISE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS – (UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS)....................... 242 APPENDIX C: ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – COMPARISON 2.................. 245 APPENDIX C1: SQUARED CORRELATIONS AND ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – (UNDERPRIVILEGED ADOPTERS)......................................................................................................................... 245 APPENDIX C2: SQUARED CORRELATIONS AND ASSESSMENT OF DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY – (PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS)............................................................................................................................................. 246 APPENDIX C3: PAIRWISE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS – (UNDER-PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS)....................... 247 APPENDIX C4: PAIRWISE DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS – (PRIVILEGED ADOPTERS) ................................... 250