Spatial Information Systems: Design, Modelling, and Use in Planning

This paper focuses on the role of spatial information systems in regional and urban planning. Experiences on the design, modelling and use of such systems are briefly commented upon. Special attention is thcn devoted to the potential of GIS. Next the question of designing tailor made information systems for planning is dealt with. A triple layer methodology for intcgrating information systems in planning models is proposed, with a particular view on three steps: conceptual reflection, prototype cxperimentation and operational software design. Next, the link between information systems and spatial planning models is dealt with. The paper is concluded with a discussion on choicc trajectories for optimum planning uses of a given data input visé-vis optimum data inputs for given planning uses. 1. SPATIAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND PLANNING Information systems and planning have in the past decade become twins. Strategie urban and regional planning (including land use and transportation systems planning) requires the design and use of tailor-made information systems. Such spatial information systems (incorporating also data management systems and simulation models) may become effective planning tools if the following conditions are satisfied: the presence of a flexible and user-friendly information systems model for strategie process planning and policy making, which is fairly robust under various developmental conditions of the spatial system concerned. an integration of recent software advances, notably in the field of geographic information systems (GIS), with modern tools for evaluating urban and regional development projects or programmes. the provision of a flexible decision support framework (including monitoring mechanisms, early warning systems, cost-benefit analysis, multicriteria analyses, and simulation experiments) which is able to assist planners and decision-makers in making strategie choices in an uncertain environment. In recent years, elements of this approach have been dcveloped separately in various cases (for instancc, decision support and expert systems for urban and environmental planning, GIS for spatial referencing), but a uniform, integrating and coherent information systems model framework aiming at pro-active planning and policymaking is lacking. The development of GIS systems is able to stimulate advanced information systems technologies by incorporating sophisticated planning tools (software, models) in strategie phases of planning t(cf. Fedra and Reitsma, 1990). The necd for a co-evolutionary pathway between technical methods (includingGIS) and planning is bccoming increasingly evident. Various promising developments can be recorded in this new field. In the international arena, the attempts of ISGLUTI (International Study Group on Land Use/ Transport Interaction) constitutes probably the most recent effort for advanced urban and regional planning. Several software programmes are now available which can handle land use and transport interactions (e.g., MEP, DORTMUND, LILT, ITLUP, CALUTAS). As f ar as country specific activities in this field are concerned, some interesting examplcs of integrated information systems models can be mentioned here. France has in recent years seen remarkable progress in the area of computer aided planning (CAP). Good examples can be found amongst others in Lyon, where multi media databases and multi media data modelling have become part of urban planning processes. Also in the field of image encoding and image databases as well as of gametic information systems new developments have taken place. Particularly interesting are also recent advances in the area of interactive videodisc systems for urban management. The Netherlands has built up a strong tradition in the area of urban, regional and transportation planning. In many cases, computerized evaluation tools (e.g. multicriteria analysis) have played a dominant role as a structural communication vehicle for strategie planning. In recent years these tools have been extendcd by the use of GIS, whilst increasingly DSS types of planning approach (including expert systems) have come into being, notably in the cnvironmental field. The U.S.A. has witnessed in recent years an avalanche of GIS applications, particularly in urban planning. A Standard example is the city of Tacoma, which has decided to develop its whole planning infrastructure jointly with automated and integrated data bases for all urban planning sectors (e.g. land use, built environment, firestations, post offices, etc). Similar developments are taking place in Chicago and Los Angeles. The previous illustrations of applications of spatial information systems are not exceptions, but they reflect the broad penetration of such systems in urban and regional planning practice. Information has become a key variable in planning. In the post-war period, many countries have experienced an information explosion. The introduction of computers, micro-clectronic equipment and telccommunication services have paved the way for an avalanche of information, not only for scientific research, but also for information transfer to a broader public and for planning or policy purposes (Burch et al. 1979, De Man, 1989). Several reasons may explain this information explosion in planning and policy-making (Nijkamp and Rietveld, 1983, Nijkamp, 1988): (i) our complex society needs insight into the mechanisms and structures determining intertwined socio-economic, spatial and environmental processes; (ii) the high risks and costs of wrong decisions require a careful judgement of all alternative courses of action; (iii) the scientific progress in statislical and econometrie modclling has led to a clcar need for more adequate data and information monitoring; (iv) modern computer software and hardware facilities (e.g. decision support systems) have provided the conditions for a quick and flexible treatment of data regarding all aspects of policy analysis; and (v) many statistical offices have produced a great deal of data which can be uscfully includcd in appropriate systems. In recent years, we observe the first signs that micro-electronics, informaties and telematics may dramatically alter western societies. In many countries, prosperity is no longer exclusively created by the production and use of manufactured commodities, but increasingly by the creation and sale of services, notably information-based and knowledge-based services (see also Cordell, 1985). Effective and accessible information systems are vital to economie performance and strategie decision making. According to recent estimates, more than half of all jobs are alrcady dircctly or indirectly related to the information and service sector, and this figure is likely to grow in the near future (Naisbitt, 1984). It is increasingly believed that advanced infrastructures for information exchange and services will be as dominant in the last decade of the twentieth century as waterway, rail and road transport infrastructures were in previous centuries. The rapid development of digital and electronic technologies, for instance in the form of digital recording and transmission of sound and pictures, optical fibres for the high speed transmission information, super-fast computers, satellite broadcasting and video transmission, offers a new potential for sophisticated voice, data and image transmission. In the RACE programme of the European Community especially, many attempts are being made to stimulate and enhance research and development in information technology. Clearly, the development of hardware and software has to run parallel in this field. The miniaturization of modern technology due to the development and widespread use of the silicon chip, has already led to drastic changes in transmission patterns of information. Distributed intelligence systems, not only at an intra-firm level but in the future also at a broader scale of European business interactions, are likely to change the face of our societies. CAD/CAM systems focusing on customization and cconomics of scope are already the predecessors of broader information technologies supporting scientific and economie progress. Thus in conclusion, information design and use has become a critical success factor for competitive planning efforts in western societies. 2. THE POSITION OF GIS From a geographical viewpoint the trend toward advanced information systems has led to the design and use of geographical information systems (GIS). A GIS serves to offer a coherent representation of a set of geographical units or objects which besides their locational positioncan be characterized by one or more attributes. Such information requires a consistent treatment of basic data, from the collection and storage stages to the manipulation and presentation of the data. All such information systems may be highly important for the planning of our scarce space, not only on a global scale (e.g. monitoring of rain-forest development), but also on a local scale (e.g. physical planning). Within this framework, spatial information systems are increasingly based on topology and combined with pattern recognition, systems theory, statistics and finite element analyses. Such tcchniques are not only relevant for research; they may also act as information bases for physical planning. The Netherlands, for instance, has always been characterized by having a strict system of physical planning, to ensure proper management of its scarce space, and there is no doubt that various types of spatial information systems, that have been developed in recent years serve to provide a rational basis for policy decisions (e.g. Geertman and Toppen, 1990, Scholten and Padding, 1990). In gencral, a GIS enables four main functions : preparation, analysis, display, and management of geographical data. Preparation includes such functions as data collection, digitising point data, and editing. The purpose of the analysis function is to examine the data to create new data, with the aim of producing information. Display includes all opcrations which produce graphic output. Management is the handling of permanent alphanumcrical and geographical data. In the analytical functions of a GIS, the combination and selection of information on the basis of the geographical component is central. From the point of view of model construction and, more gcncrally, from the point of view of quantitative-empirical methods, the specifie GIS analysis mcthods supplement existing analysis tcchniques. They are, however, by no means a replacement of such methods. Models are stylized representations of reality, based on the logic of mathematics. GIS offers also a stylized picture of reality, using the fruits of modern computer technology and carthography and, above all, the integration of spatial and attribute data ( c.f. Duekcr, 1987). Birkin et al (1987) spcak of a ncccssary marriagc bctween the modcl-based mcthods and the tcchniques from GIS to provide adequate tools to assist decisionmakers. They distinguish techniques for: transformation of data, synthesis and integration of data, updating information, forecasting, impact analysis, and optimization. They conclude that the two approaches have barely come togethcr because of different historical traditions and research foei. A number of examples however, can be quoted in which the power of this integration is beginning to be uscd (Cliff and Haggett, 1988; de la Barra et al., 1984; Fedra, 1986; Fcdra et al., 1987). Figure 1 The hypothesis of the missing link Survey da ia Siatisitcal packages (CLUSTAN, SPSS) Forecasiing models Spatial analysis techniques