The modulation of immune response by using Ayurvedic herbal medications as a possible therapeutic measure has now become a subject of scientific investigation. The concept in modern scientific understanding would mean enhancement of immune responsiveness of an organism against a pathogen by nonspecifically activating the immune system using immunomodulatory agents of plant origin. It is now bei...

The newly emerging human pathogen influenza A H7N9 represents a potentially major threat to human health. The virus was first shown to be pathogenic in humans in 2013, and outbreaks continue to occur in China to the present time. The current incident mortality rate is disturbingly high despite the frequent use of antiviral therapy and intensive care management. If the virus gains the capacity f...

Despite the development of new modalities, cyclophosphamide (CYC) remains the preferred initial treatment for severe proliferative lupus nephritis. Controversies continue about the best route, dosage, and duration of CYC treatment. For recalcitrant disease, new immunosuppressive and immunomodulating agents, immunoablative high dose CYC, nucleoside analogues, apheresis, and the biological respon...

Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls) confer diverse functions on their target proteins. The modified proteins are involved in various biological processes, including DNA replication, signal transduction, cell cycle control, embryogenesis, cytoskeletal regulation, metabolism, stress response, homeostasis and mRNA processing. Modifiers such as SUMO, ATG12, ISG15, FAT10, URM1, and UFM have been shown to...

Despite active immune responses, gammaherpesviruses establish latency. In a related process, these viruses also persistently replicate by using a mechanism that requires different viral genes than acute-phase replication. Many questions remain about the role of immunity in chronic gammaherpesvirus infection, including whether the immune system controls latency by regulating latent cell numbers ...

Helminths are the largest and most complex pathogens to invade and live within the human body. Since they are not able to outpace the immune system by rapid antigen variation or faster cell division or retreat into protective niches not accessible to immune effector mechanisms, their long-term survival depends on influencing and regulating the immune responses away from the mode of action most ...