We discuss the functional roles of β₂-adrenergic receptors in skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy as well as the adaptive responses of β₂-adrenergic receptor expression to anabolic and catabolic conditions. β₂-Adrenergic receptor stimulation using anabolic drugs increases muscle mass by promoting muscle protein synthesis and/or attenuating protein degradation. These effects are prevented by...

Sustained activity at most central synapses is accompanied by a number of short-term changes in synaptic strength which act over a range of time scales. Here we examine experimental data and develop a model of synaptic depression at the calyx of Held synaptic terminal that combines many of these mechanisms (acting at differing sites and across a range of time scales). This new model incorporate...

In recent years scientific literature has seen an increase in publications describing new transgenic applications. Although technically-sound, these promising developments might not necessarily translate into products available to the consumer. This article highlights the impact of external factors on the commercial viability of Genetically Modified (GM) animals in the pharmaceutical and food s...

Introduction. Spasticity is a disabling symptom resulting from reorganization of spinal reflexes no longer inhibited by supraspinal control. Several studies have demonstrated interest in repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in spastic patients. We conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind crossover study on five spastic hemiparetic patients to determine whether this type of stim...

The semitendinous muscle of the lizard Tilique contains both slow and twitch fibers; by subdivision of its motor nerve, fibers of each type may be stimulated separately. When, during repetitive stimulation of nerve filaments, the muscle was lengthened or shortened, the tension changes included an initial short-range stiffness, followed by a later compliance. With increasing velocities of moveme...