This paper takes a network perspective to investigate how rural households in developing countries form the links through which they provide and get economic support. I test the hypothesis that indirect contacts (e.g. friends of friends) matter for link formation. An estimation procedure of a network formation model à la Jackson and Wolinsky (1996) is proposed and applied to data on a single vi...

Three indirect techniques for index flood estimation are analysed in order to evaluate their applicability and effectiveness. These indirect techniques, based on both statistical and conceptual approaches, are applied to a set of 33 hydrometric stations, located in a large area in northern-central Italy. The results show that the statistical model, due to its flexible structure, has a better de...

Rapid, reliable and objective estimations of leaf area index (LAI) are essential for numerous studies of atmosphere–vegetation interaction, as LAI is very often a critical parameter in process-based models of vegetation canopy response to global environmental change. This paper reviews current knowledge concerning the use of direct and indirect methods for LAI determination. The value of optica...

Both direct potentiometry and indirect potentiometry are currently used for Na+ testing in blood. These measurement techniques show good agreement as long as protein and lipid concentrations in blood remain normal. In severely ill patients, indirect potentiometry commonly leads to relevant errors in Na+ estimation: 25% of specimens show a disagreement between direct and indirect potentiometry, ...

In a general Adaptive Robust Control (ARC) framework, the emphasis is always on the guaranteed transient performance and accurate trajectory tracking in the presence of uncertain nonlinearity and parametric uncertainties. However, when secondary purposes such as system health monitoring and prognosis are of equal importance, intelligent integration of output tracking performance oriented direct...

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Recently, position estimation for acoustic signals has been studied intensively and many different algorithms have been proposed. The different methods can be classified into indirect (estimation of time-difference of arrival (TDOA) and then position) and direct (direct estimation of position) methods. Furthermore, they can be classified according to whether they use a model for the mixing chan...