the use of low level laser to reduce pain, inflammation and edema, to promote wound, deeper tissues and nerves healing, and to prevent tissue damage has been known for almost forty years since the invention of lasers. this review will cover some of the proposed cellular mechanisms responsible for the effect of visible light on mammalian cells, including cytochrome c oxidase (with absorption pea...

low level laser therapy (lllt) uses a light source that generates extremely pure light, of a single wavelength1. the effect is not thermal, but rather related to photochemical reactions in the cells. lllt was introduced as an alternative non-invasive treatment for oa about 10 years ago, but its effectiveness is still controversial2. a cochrane review of lllt in osteoarthritis included five tria...

Genome-wide association (GWA) studies require genotyping hundreds of thousands of markers on thousands of subjects, and are expensive at current genotyping costs. To conserve resources, many GWA studies are adopting a staged design in which a proportion of the available samples are genotyped on all markers in stage 1, and a proportion of these markers are genotyped on the remaining samples in s...