The paper surveys the various economic costs associated with terrorism. Particularly important is the distinction between the direct and the indirect costs. While many terrorist attacks cause substantial amounts of property damage and create casualties, most of the costs associated with terrorism involve the indirect costs. Although terrorism can reduce a nation’s overall growth rate, the costs...

in iran the mainstreaming tool for integrating environmental concerns into energy sector is an energy-environment review (eer-iran). this paper comprises: (i) an analysis of the current situation with regards to energy production and consumption; (ii) an evaluation of the growth prospects with regard to energy production and consumption; (iii) the identification of environmental issues induced ...

A technique is developed to model instrumented buildings with a second-generation performance-based earthquake engineering approach, producing a damage and loss estimate shortly after the cessation of strong motion. It estimates the likely locations of damage (including concealed structural damage), potentially saving the owner time and money by focusing post-earthquake safety and repair inspec...

The hypothesis that oxidative damage accumulation can mediate the trade-off between reproduction and lifespan has recently been questioned. However, in captive conditions, studies reporting no evidence in support of this hypothesis have usually provided easy access to food which may have mitigated the cost of reproduction. Here, I test the hypothesis that greater investment in reproduction shou...

One of the fundamental concepts of integrated pest management is that each pest species has a definable relationship in terms of damage to the plant or animal host that it attacks. This relationship is often referred to as the damage curve (Fig. 1), which is often determined relative to yield loss. This damage curve can take several forms, but was summarized by Higley and Peterson as having a t...

The objective of this producer survey was to identify and estimate damage caused by bird-livestock interactions in commercial dairies. The interactions between birds and livestock have previously been implicated in causing economic damage while contributing to the environmental dissemination of microorganisms pathogenic to livestock and humans. Very little research exists to help producers unde...

Cost-effective surveillance strategies are needed for efficient responses to biological invasions and must account for the trade-offs between surveillance effort and management costs. Less surveillance may allow greater population growth and spread prior to detection, thereby increasing the costs of damages and control. In addition, surveillance strategies are usually applied in environments un...

1 7 1 8 Age-related diseases are often attributed to immunopathology, which results in self-1 9 damage caused by an inappropriate inflammatory response. Immunopathology 2 0 associated with early-life inflammation also appears to cause faster ageing, although 2 1 we lack direct experimental evidence for this association. To understand the 2 2 interactions between ageing, inflammation and immunop...

University of Bristol, Psychopharmacology Unit, School of Medical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK (D J Nutt FRCPsych) Drug addiction, or as it is also called, drug dependence, is a serious health problem; in addition to the huge direct health costs (psychiatric and physical), there are massive costs in terms of crime, loss of earnings and productivity, and social damage. The drug...