it is not known whether the instincts of wild horses have remained strong during their centuries of domestication. knowledge of this matter would give riders the opportunity to know more about the behavior of horses and consequently about safety for both horses and riders. in this current research, we studied the behavior of fifteen caspian miniature horses of different ages and sexes using sti...

BACKGROUND Chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) is an inflammatory process that causes different clinical symptoms: nasal blockage and congestion, posterior and anterior nasal drip, and smell disorder ranging from reduced olfaction (hyposmia) to complete loss of smell (anosmia). It has been suggested that mechanical blockage of olfactory clef after polypectomy is responsible for the persistent impairme...

Patients with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) frequently develop Parkinson's disease and the majority present with hyposmia, which is a potential preclinical non-motor sign of Parkinson's disease. Accordingly, it has been proposed that the clinical symptoms of hyposmia and RBD in combination have to be considered as very early symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Since ...

The KAL-1 gene underlies the X-linked form of Kallmann syndrome (KS), a neurological disorder that impairs the development of the olfactory and GnRH systems. KAL-1 encodes anosmin-1, a cell matrix protein that shows cell adhesion, neurite outgrowth, and axon-guidance and -branching activities. We used zebrafish embryos as model to better understand the role of this protein during olfactory syst...

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leucoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is a rare, heritable, small vessel vascular disease caused by mutations in the Notch3 gene that is characterized by migraines, subcortical vascular events, cognitive decline, and mood disturbances. However, many CADASIL cases present with unusual symptoms such as status epilepticus, a movement d...

De-Morsier’s syndrome or Septo-optic dysplasia is a rare medical disorder which is strongly associated with CNS, Ophthalmological manifestations. However, in minority of patients, this condition presents with olfactory tract hypoplasia. The CNS abnormalities include abnormalities of the hypothalamicpituitary axis, hypoplasia of the optic nerve. Often, absence of septum pellucidum is seen along ...