Though not the first to use the term "psychology" (psychologia), 1 Christian Wolff did give it currency in the mid-eighteenth century. He was the first to mark off the discipline of empirical psychology and to distinguish it from rational, or theoretical, psychology. This distinction and his conception of the two corresponding methods of conducting psychological inquiry, especially his emphasis...

Building on Karl Polanyi’s theory of a societal reaction to the unregulated exchange of what he called fictitious commodities—labour, money and land— this paper links the history of sociology to the history of the market. If the first wave of marketization in the nineteenth century dwelt on the commodification of labour, prompting utopian sociologies, and the second wave of marketization of the...

Spiritism is a religious doctrine originated in France during the nineteenth century through the works of Allan Kardec. In Brazil, it assumed an original configuration: rational and scientific Christian spiritism, pioneered by Luiz de Mattos, was one of the national doctrinal variants. Luiz de Mattos created the Centro Espírita Redemptor where, for some years, he monitored the treatment of the ...

In this section we discuss the theory of Fourier Series for functions of a real variable. In the next sections we will study an analogue which is the “discrete” Fourier Transform. Early in the Nineteenth century, Fourier studied sound and oscillatory motion and conceived of the idea of representing periodic functions by their coefficients in an expansion as a sum of sines and cosines rather tha...

Edwin Stephen Goodrich studied the structures of animals in England during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Goodrich studied how animals develop to identify their parts and to establish the evolutionary relationships between different species. Goodrich established that body structures can shift their positions relative to an organism's body during evolution [3], and he hypothesized that ...

Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire studied anatomy and congenital abnormalities in humans [2] and other animals in nineteenth century France. Under the tutelage of his father, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Isidore compiled and built on his father's studies of individuals with developmental malformations, then called monstrosities. In 1832, Isidore published Histoire générale et particulière des a...

Freud’s rejection of nineteenth century psychiatry and neurology encouraged him to look for new models of diagnosis and healing. While Western medical discourse is based upon a rational approach founded upon the Hippocratic corpus, this paper argues that psychoanalysis contains many elements that can be traced to the healing cult of Asclepius. A close reading of Freud’s texts reveals that he wa...

Modern medicine in China owes its origins to Anglo-American medical missionaries who introduced Western medicine into China in the early nineteenth century. In 1835 the first medical missionary to China, the Reverend Dr Peter Parker, founded the Canton Ophthalmic Hospital where he pioneered lithotomy and other surgical operations for Chinese patients. This paper chronicles the subsequent devel...

Modern studies of the composition of Jupiter’s atmosphere date back to the mid-nineteenth century, when the nearinfrared spectrum of the planet was viewed by Rutherfurd (1863) using diffraction gratings of his own manufacture. He discovered features that remained unidentified until 1932, when Wildt showed that the unknown spectral lines were due to ammonia and methane. In later years, building ...

Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel was a prominent comparative anatomist and active lecturer in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. He is most well known for his descriptions of phylogenetic trees, studies of radiolarians, and illustrations of vertebrate embryos to support his biogenetic law [4] and Darwin?s work with evolution [5]. Haeckel aggressively argued that the develop...