This study analyzes the conception of gharar , which is generally translated as either risk or uncertainty, in post-formative Islamic commercial law. According to Muslim jurists, gharar arises from uncertainty in commercial transactions. However, unlike other areas of the Islamic intellectual tradition in which uncertainty engenders errors, the uncertainty associated with gharar enables jurists...

Ibn Cena (1020 A.D.) described the anatomy of the human heart, ascending aorta and the inferior vein, and postulated anastomoses of the arteries with the veins in the extremeties to keep. the blood in circulation and suggested the presence Qf interatrial communication during the earlier stages of life. Abu Sahl Masihi (1027 A.D., elucidated the vena caval drainage into the right ventricle and t...