background: cadmium (cd) is an extremely toxic metal and environmental exposure to cd has been particularly problematic in the world. oral exposure to cd may result in adverse effects on a number of tissues, the immune system, and the cardiovascular system. compounds containing cd are also carcinogenic. the presence of cd in drinking water resources in the southeastern region of rafsanjan plain...

patients and methods the study was conducted among 40 young rural pregnant women, 12 to 20 years old by implementing a questionnaire during 2012 to 2013 in four villages in southeast of iran. the women were exposed to high-risk factors such as shortage or lack of drinking water, high pressure electric power sources and chemicals released from burning gas both from cooking and cars as a fuel. th...

fluoride is an essential element for human health. however, excess fluoride in drinking water may cause dental and/or skeletal fluorosis. drinking water is the main route of fluoride intake. the aim of the present study was to measure fluoride levels in human breast milk collected from two regions of golestan province, northern iran with different amount of fluoride concentration of drinking wa...

Three experiments examined the effect of sucrose consumption in a novel context on the conditioning of an aversion to that context. In Experiment 1, rats were injected with LiCl after drinking either sucrose (Group SUC-LI) or water (Group WAT-LI) in a novel context (context 2). An unpoisoned control group consumed water in context 2 and was injected with isotonic saline solution (Group WAT-SAL)...

Both systemically administered furosemide and isoproterenol produce water intake (i.e., thirst). Curiously, however, in light of the endocrine and hemodynamic effects produced by these treatments, they are remarkably ineffective in eliciting intake of hypertonic saline solutions (i.e., operationally defined as sodium appetite). Recent work indicates that bilateral injections of the serotonin re...

Anxiety disorders are the most common forms of mental illness of the adult population of the U.S.A. Use of animal models for anxiety has made an important contribution to clinical and pharmacological anxiety research as well as basic research of the mechanisms involved. We review the current operant conditioning models that are used in anxiety research as well as paradigms using unconditioned f...

Marine teleosts survive in their hyperosmotic environment by drinking the surrounding saline solution. They absorb salt (NaCl) and water through the wall of the gut, and excrete NaCl through the gills. This saves water to make up for the osmotic loss to the surroundings. When the salinity of the surrounding water is changed to a new level, the drinking rate (Maetz & Skadhauge 1968; Potts et al....

high concentration of nitrate is a prevalent problem in water resources. untreated wastewater due to municipal, industrial and agricultural activities is the main potential source of nitrate contamination of groundwater and surface water. the maximum permissible level of nitrate concentration has been established to be 45 mg/l by who and us–epa. health problems, such as methemoglobinemia in bab...