Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease whose evolution involves complex immune mechanisms of the host that influence the clinical presentation of the disease. For many years, the main interpretation of the host defense response was based on characterization of the established immune paradigm between T helper (Th) 1 and Th2 lymphocytes. However, with advances in the knowledge of immunology, new...

Presentation of processed allergen by antigen-presenting cells to T-helper (Th) lymphocytes, which is influenced costimulatory signals, cytokines, chemokines, and regulatory T cells (Tregs), determines the development of different types of T-cell immunity. The discovery of Tregs revolutionized the primary concepts of immune regulation interpreted within the framework of a binary Th1/Th2 paradig...

This report introduces a percutaneous transpedicular interbody fusion (PTPIF) technique in posterior stabilization using percutaneous pedicle screws (PPSs). An 81-year-old man presented with pseudoarthrosis following pyogenic spondylitis 15 months before. Although no relapse of infection was found, he complained of obstinate low back pain and mild neurological symptoms. Radiological evaluations...

The host immunological pathways are re-organized to get a clear picture. There are four acute immune responses: TH1/TH2/TH22/THαβ which are corresponding to four chronic immune responses: TH1Like/TH9/TH17/TH3. Then, the four branches of immune reactions can link to four types of hypersensitivities or allergies. THfh is the stimulatory pathway to initiate adaptive acute immunity. Another inhibit...

Periapical lesions of endodontic origin and periodontitis are the two common chronic conditions that constitute the immunoinflammatory responses to putative oral pathogens. Both the conditions encompass similar patterns of development and pathologic mechanisms of host-mediated tissue destruction and subsequent establishment of the lesion. This host inflammatory response is attributed to a large...

In response to cytokine signalling and other factors, CD4-positive T lymphocytes differentiate into distinct populations that are characterized by the production of certain cytokines and are controlled by different master transcription factors. The spectrum of such populations, which was initially limited to Th1 and Th2 subsets, is currently broadened to include Th17 and Treg subsets, as well a...

Th1, Th2, Th9 and Th17 cells are conventional CD4+ effector T cells identified as secretors of prototypical cytokines IFNγ, IL4, IL9, and IL-17A respectively. Recently, populations of natural Th17 and Th1 cells (nTh17 and nTh1) with innate-like phenotype have been identified in the thymus that are distinct from conventional Th17 and Th1 cells. The absence of the Tec family kinase Interleukin-2 ...

Abstract IL-9 has lent its numerical designation to the Th9 subset of CD4+ Th cells, although it is also produced by additional cell types, including mast cells. It a pleiotropic cytokine involved in allergic reactions, parasitic infections, autoimmune inflammation, and cancer immunity. In this article, we provide evidence that NFATc2 contradictory functions expression murine cells bone marrow–...

In a murine model of allergic asthma, we found that Tyk-2((-/-)) asthmatic mice have induced peribronchial collagen deposition, mucosal type mast cells in the lung, IRF4 and hyperproliferative lung Th2 CD4(+) effector T cells over-expressing IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and IL-13. We also observed increased Th9 cells expressing IL-9 and IL-10 as well as T helper cells expressing IL-6, IL-10 and IL-2...