The authors report 5 studies that demonstrate that manhood, in contrast to womanhood, is seen as a precarious state requiring continual social proof and validation. Because of this precariousness, they argue that men feel especially threatened by challenges to their masculinity. Certain male-typed behaviors, such as physical aggression, may result from this anxiety. Studies 1-3 document a robus...

W e are defined by sexual dimorphism. Male and female, the sexes we are (and are perceived to be), affect how we feel, how we behave and how we interact with others. We look around and see all complex creatures, including ourselves, as either male or female. This is so much a part of our daily existence that it reinforces the idea of manhood and womanhood as expressions of a natural order. We r...

The global development community has focused in recent decades on closing the gender gap in education, but has given insufficient attention to the specific needs of pre- and post-pubescent girls as they transition to young womanhood within the educational institution. This study explored the social context of girls' experiences of menses and schooling in northern Tanzania, with data collection ...

This paper attempts to investigate continuities and discontinuities between traditional and modern representations of womanhood and female gender roles focusing primarily on family and work settings. Using approaches informed by Sociology, Cultural Psychology, and African Studies, the paper explores traditional views of womanhood encapsulated in (and also transmitted intergenerationally) throug...