Although previous works have discussed the benefits of precolonial centralization for development in Africa, the findings and the mechanisms provided do not explain the heterogeneity in development outcomes of formerly centralized states. Using new survey data from Nigeria, I find a significant negative effect of precolonial centralization on access to certain public services for centralized re...

In China, local governments have actively contributed to the growth of new firms. In Russia, local governments have typically stood in the way, be it through taxation, regulation, or corruption. We argue that the difference can be traced to lies in the degree of political centralization present in China, but not in Russia. In China the central government has been strong and disciplined enough t...

With today’s importance of distributed applications, their verification and analysis are still challenging. They involve large combinational states, interactive network communications between peers, and concurrency. Although there are some dynamic analysis tools for analyzing the runtime behavior of a single-process application, they do not provide methods to analyze distributed applications as...

OBJECTIVE Tests and measures, if confounded by behavioral signs, cloud interpretation of physical test results during clinical examination. The purpose of this study was to determine whether common behavioral signs and pain responses (i.e. centralization and non-centralization) were associated during initial examination. DESIGN Observational and designed to cross-tabulate pain responses to be...