We define a notion of randomness for individual and collections of formal languages based on automatic martingales acting on sequences of words from some underlying domain. An automatic martingale bets if the incoming word belongs to the target language or not. Then randomness of both single languages and collections of languages is defined as a failure of automatic martingale to gain an unboun...

Emergency language service is an important component of disaster management, which runs through the whole process from occurrence to solution. As a disaster-prone area, Japan has rich practical experience in emergency services. The context formed by major emergencies often endows existing words with certain relevance semantics or situational semantics, as well birth some new words. On basis exp...

While linguistic theory posits an arbitrary relation between signifiers and the signified (de Saussure, 1916), our analysis of a large-scale German database containing affective ratings of words revealed that certain phoneme clusters occur more often in words denoting concepts with negative and arousing meaning. Here, we investigate how such phoneme clusters that potentially serve as sublexical...

Amarakośa is the most celebrated and authoritative ancient thesaurus of Sanskrit. It is one of the books which an Indian child learning through Indian traditional educational system memorizes as early as his first year of formal learning. Though it appears as a linear list of words, close inspection of it shows a rich organisation of words expressing various relations a word bears with other wo...

Literature is the aesthetic manifestation of language. It is ‘as old as human language and as new as tomorrow’s sunrise.’ This paper explores the interrelationships between language and literature from 600 AD to the present day.  The grammar of present-day English is closely related to that of Old English with the same tense formation and word orders. The verse unit is a single line and its org...

Some reference grammars and cross-linguistic works describe all elements that are not clear-cut words as “clitics.” As a consequence of this practice, the class suggested clitics is highly heterogeneous, which reduces usefulness “clitic” label whole. In response to situation, more nuanced typology grammatical forms proposed here. The argument crucially relies on notion formal “dependence,” esse...