Availability: Public (only once status above is "Accepted") The question whether marginal cost pricing should be applied in the transportation sector has attained a great deal of attention during the last few years. It is argued that marginal cost pricing, or marginal social cost pricing – a term used when one wishes to emphasise that the pricing is applied by a government / regulator – would s...

The social cost of carbon – or marginal damage caused by an additional ton of carbon dioxide emissions – has been estimated by a U.S. government working group at $21/tCO2 in 2010. That calculation, however, omits many of the biggest risks associated with climate change, and downplays the impact of current emissions on future generations. Our reanalysis explores the effects of uncertainty about ...

according to performed classification by ramsar convention (1971), choghakhor is one of the most valuable wetlands of iran. despite of high abilities of perspective and variation of habitats, tourism valuations are not considered. in this study, promenade valuation choghakhor wetland was estimated by using zonal travel cost method. these methods is based on using map, sight, social-economical c...

BACKGROUND Alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and psychoactive pharmaceuticals' use is associated with a higher likelihood of developing several diseases and injuries and, as a consequence, considerable health-care expenditures. There is yet a lack of consistent methodologies to estimate the economic impact of addictive substances to society. The aim was to assess the methodological approaches ap...

in iran, more than 96.4 percent of dairy farms (including more than 68.7 percent of cattle and calf) have a less than 20 heads of animals, and they produce more than two-thirds of milk and most of animal protein. also, large shares of water, land and labor force resources are used by this production section. less scientific studies have been focused on this production system despite it's m...

We study a class of games in which a finite number of agents each controls a quantity of flow to be routed through a network, and are able to split their own flow between multiple paths through the network. Recent work on this model has contrasted the social cost of Nash equilibria with the best possible social cost. Here we show that additional costs are incurred in situations where a selfish ...